Bid-rent Theory

The concept of bid rent is vital to models of land use and as such, it is important to have an understanding of it to know how urban areas may grow. Bid rent is the value of land for different purposes. As I have mentioned in previous posts, the land at the centre of the city is the most expensive due to its accessibility (by public transport) and the small amount of land actually available (hence the high-rise buildings). As such, land prices tend to decrease away from the CBD, although there are peaks in particularly desirable areas (near main road intersects). This type of land-use is also recognised in Burgess’ model.

The graph below (from s-cool) is one of the best representations of bid-rent theory I’ve seen. It clearly depicts what the various land users are willing to pay for land. 

The graph clearly shows that commerce is willing to pay the largest amount in rent to be located in the CBD. Department stores and national chains are willing to pay the high rent, to get the footfall (and as such, turnover) that only the highly accessible CBD can offer. Many stores in the CBD maximise their square footage by building plenty of levels (stories) to their store. The rent that commerce is willing to pay is the steepest line on the graph - which means the amount of rent commerce is willing to pay declines quicker per kilometre out of town, than any of the other land uses.

Industry needs land available to build factories and as such, they are not willing to pay the high prices for the land within the CBD. As long as Industry sites are within easy distance of the CBD, to make use of the communication and market place, they are willing to pay to be on outskirts of the CBD.

Area 3 is unattractive to commerce and industry and as such residential building does not get priced out of the running for land. Without the competition from industry and commerce, the land is cheaper and so it is possible to build larger houses with gardens.

It is possible to see the connections between bid-rent and Christaller’s hierarchy and threshold within Central Place Theory. Clearly, with the building of out of town shopping centres and main roads this pattern does not always work, but it is a good model to aid understanding. The diagram below (page 273, from Nagle, 2001) shows the variations in bid-rent with accessibility. I think the two diagrams shown in this blog would be really good diagrams to analyse as a class (or to start with, individually) as part of a KS5 lesson.

References

http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/geography/urban-profiles/revise-it/central-place-and-bid-rent-theories

Nagle, 2001. Advanced Geography. Oxford University Press.

Walter Christaller

Christaller introduced the conceptual framework that is Central Place Theory (CPT) in 1933. Central Place Theory essentially states that if an area of land is flat and featureless and there is an even distribution of population, as well as equal money and transport opportunities, then settlements will follow a distribution pattern according to their size. CPT attempts to illustrate the concepts of threshold and range of settlements, how settlements locate in relation to one another as well as dealing with hierarchy of settlements.

Threshold and Range

The minimum sales that an establishment must secure in order to survive is the threshold population. The relationship between threshold population and number of establishments is exponential (similar to y=e^-x).

The range is the maximum distance the population is prepared to travel to purchase goods from a central place. This will be different for convenience and comparison goods, in general people are willing to travel further for comparison goods than they are for convenience. Hence convenience goods will have a short range and comparison a long range.

Hierarchy

This is exactly what I mentioned about in the ‘Rural Characteristics’ blog post when I spoke about the function and hierarchy of a settlement. Hierarchy is essentially made up of three steps: first, the higher order settlements are generally larger in size and offer more functions; second, higher order settlements occur less frequently, and as such, are spaced further apart. Finally the hierarchy is stepped as can been seen in the graph in the ‘Rural Characteristics’ blog post.

Nesting

This is the main part of central place theory that the S-cool website goes into. Each settlement is surrounded by a market area it serves. The largest settlements are found at the centre of the hexagons and are surrounded by smaller settlements. The larger the settlement, the greater the market area. The idea is that people from the small villages will only visit their large settlements for anything not provided by the village - they cannot cross the boundaries.

The distribution of nesting will follow one of three patterns: Firstly, Market Optimising. In this pattern, shoppers in the smaller settlements divide into three equal groups when shopping in the three larger settlements.

Second: Transport Optimising. Shoppers in the smaller settlements divide into two equal groups when shopping in the two nearest large settlements.

Third, and finally: Administration Optimising. All shoppers in the smaller settlements shop in the nearest large settlement. 

References

Nagle and Spencer, 1997. Advanced Geography Revision Handbook. Oxford University Press.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/102569/central-place-theory

http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/geography/urban-profiles/revise-it/central-place-and-bid-rent-theories

Urban Structure - LEDCs

Although LEDCs have similar land uses to MEDCs, their layout is very different. The CBD is still the central section, with the highest priced land. However, the next section isn’t the cheap housing and industry as it is in MEDCs, instead you’ll find high cost housing - normally luxury high rise apartment blocks and / or detached houses.

Industry, instead of being in the inner city, is found along the main transport routes. Going outward from the luxury housing are the areas of semi-permanent informal housing, while at the very edge of the city are the favelas.

Favelas are illegal settlements, built from mud, straw and scrap metals - whatever they can find. There is no gas or electricity and no drains, sewage or water supply. The people in favelas pay no rent or rates, the roads are unmade and there is high unemployment. Where people do have jobs they are temporary, part-time and low paid. Any of the very limited public transport that goes as far as the favelas is overcrowded and dangerous. There are major crime problems in the area, few schools and very little medical care. For many residents though, they come from the countryside to the city looking for a better way of life.

Below is the LEDC urban structure model (from BBC Bitesize)…

The topic in teaching…

I read somewhere a lesson plan where the teacher collected a variety of scrap material and asked students to have a go at making their own favelas out of what they collected. I think this would be a really good activity to get students involved, providing I could tie in some suitable aims for the lesson.

References

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/urban_environments/urban_models_ledcs_rev1.shtml

http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/geography/settlements/revise-it/urban-morphology

Urban Structure - MEDCs

Urban structure is made up of various different zones. Within MEDCs there are generally 5 zones: the Central Business District (CBD), inner city, inner suburbs, outer suburbs and countryside. Each zone tends to have its own particular land use. The CBD is an area of high density, high rise buildings which occur because competition for land is high here. CBDs are normally pedestrianized, contain the main shopping areas, have a bus and train station, plenty of banks, offices and entertainment venues and cafes. Car parking is generally found on the edge of the CBD. The CBD is where most business and commerce is found. A good example for picturing the CBD is the pedestrianize areas of Leicester City Centre - particularly around the clock tower.

The inner city is found next to the CBD and mainly consists of houses in a grid like pattern (think Coronation Street). In the 19^th Century these terraced houses were built to house factory workers who worked in the inner city factories. They are generally 2 up 2 down houses with an outside toilet and are found near the canal or railway. When the terraces were built, there would have also been a factory nearby, as well as a public bath and park in the area. Each street would have also had a pub or corner shop. During the 1960s many of the factories started to close down, which led to unemployment and other socioeconomic problems, which in turn meant periods of unrest in many inner city areas. Many of the old terraces were knocked down and replaced with flats and maisonettes.  In recent years many of these areas have undergone a period of regeneration, some have had retail parks built on the former industrial estates, for example Watford Arches Retail Park. Run down terraces are often bought by investors who adapt the houses for modern living, adding an inside bathroom and in some cases adapting houses for the student market. A great local example is Clarendon Park in Leicester - a very popular area for students of the University of Leicester to live in. Many of these terraced houses have been adapted to house 2, 3, 4 or 5 students. Other investors will improve the terraces to appeal to young professionals who need to access the CBD. This process of renovating the inner city areas is called gentrification.

The next zone is the inner suburbs. This area contains housing which is nearly all detached or semi-detached. Mostly built in the 1920s and 1930s, the housing is medium sized, generally has a garden and a few have a garage. Places of worship, schools and parks are often present as well as shopping centres which can sometimes be found here.

The outer suburbs are made up of detached houses. These tend to be large new houses with garages, gardens and trees. In the late 20^th Century housing estates were built in the suburbs, arranging the detached houses along roads arranged in cul-de-sacs and wide avenues. New shopping centres, council estates, modern factories and open parks and spaces are found within the outer suburbs.

The final zone is the countryside. There are few houses found here, mostly fields, trees and according what I wrote in my GCSE work book, sheep.

Geographers have created models of what a typical city should look like. One of the most famous is the Burgess model, also known as the concentric zone model. As you can see from my drawing above, the order in which I went through the zones fits with the Burgess model. The idea is that land values are highest in the centre of the town or city, because competition his high in the central parts of the settlement. This leads to layout as mentioned above, with the highest density of buildings in the centre and density decreasing the further out one goes.

The Burgess model…

Clearly, this will not fit every city, as not every city is a ‘typical city’. On top of this, the Burgess model was developed before mass car ownership, which does affect the model as I will look into below. Finally, the model does not take into account the many people who choose to live and work outside the city.

The Hoyt model (see below) aims to solve a few of the issues with the Burgess model. It is still based on the concentric rings, but also takes into account the transport and physical factors which affect a settlements layout, as well as the knowledge that houses were built along main roads to ensure easy access to the CBD. The model also takes into account that factories were built along railways and canals, so that raw materials and the finished products could be transported easily. Some of the other outward developments acknowledge the fact that many cities grew outwards on the flattest land, as it was easier and cheaper to build on.

The topic in teaching…

From looking in my work book, when I learnt about this, it was a case of copying down diagrams from the board and working through things as a class. I’m not really sure how far I could deviate from this, but one activity I did see that I thought was really good is shown below…

This was given to us as a sheet of 9 jigsaw pieces which we had to cut out and fit together to make the town. Following from this we then coloured in the sections to show how the town grew - from just the centre in the 1700s, to the growth of the 1900s and then the extension to add the suburban estates in the 1950s. The key on the bottom left hand side of the picture notes the corresponding colours to years of development.

References

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/urban_environments/urban_models_medcs_rev1.shtml

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/urban_environments/urban_models_medcs_rev2.shtml

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/urban_environments/urban_models_medcs_rev3.shtml

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/urban_environments/urban_models_medcs_rev4.shtml

http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/geography/settlements/revise-it/urban-morphology

Greenbelts

Related to the Rural-Urban fringe (see my earlier post) are greenbelts. Greenbelts were established by the Government to avoid cities in England and Scotland sprawling out across the countryside. By creating rings of heavily protected open land around large cities and urban areas, it is hoped that the countryside will be protected from development and in some severe cases, stop two cities merging into each other. It is very unusual to get planning permission granted for sites within greenbelts, but some proposals do get through (such as the M25) due to great pressure and need for things like roads.

The Hindhead tunnel is a great example of where building in greenspace does not mean destroying the environment. In a move to reduce congestion in Surrey, where the A3 narrows to a single carriageway in Hindhead, a tunnel was built to link the two parts of the duel carriageway. This tunnel goes underneath a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). It apparently took 10 years to decide that a tunnel was the only option (a cutting would have damaged the SSSI). Engineers who worked on the project believe that there is a net benefit to the environment, especially due to the 200,000 trees which were planted. At 1.8km long, the tunnel is currently the longest road tunnel in the UK which goes under land (rather than water).

One of the only negative impacts of greenbelts, in general, is that they have led to commuters having to travel further into work. Below is a map to show the distribution of greenbelts in the UK (from the s-cool website):

References
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-surrey-14298318
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-surrey-14278289
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/geography/settlements/revise-it/the-rural-urban-fringe

Shoplife

I’m not normally one for watching BBC Three documentaries, but with a sister about to embark on a year placement at one of the largest retail brands in the UK, I was intrigued to watch Shoplife. Based in the Metrocentre in Gateshead, the documentary follows a group of young people working in the shops there. It was fascinating and got me thinking about the geography of such a retail centre. During my own studies at school we learnt about the regeneration of Reading and the new (at the time!) Oracle centre.

Despite shopping being at the heart of the urban model and urban change, out of town shopping centres, such as the Metrocentre, are not covered much in the settlement section. During KS3 it is covered under “Human Processes” and at A Level, shopping centres can be studied during the “Geographical Issue Evaluation” unit.

So, here I go, off on a tangent, to satisfy my curiosity for the geography behind this shopping centre. Here is what I found…

The Metrocentre (or intu Metrocentre as it is corporately known as), is the largest shopping centre in Britain - every day 70 000 shoppers venture through the centre’s doors. Prior to the development, the area was a power station’s waterlogged ash dump. In 1981, the area became one of the first enterprise zones set up by the UK Government. Enterprise Zones are areas which support both new and expanding businesses by offering incentives. This support meant the Metrocentre could be economically viable and so the plans were made; the aim was to provide a “shopping and leisure centre that combined the best of North American innovation with all the lessons learnt from centuries of European shopping tradition”.

Despite being an abandoned field with no access, the site did have one advantage - its location! The site is situated in the heart of Tyneside and as such, has a potential catchment of 1.5 million people within a 30 minute drive and 3 million people within one hour.

The centre itself comprises of 4 malls (red, green, blue and yellow), which together host over 340 stores and have over 50 places to eat. In 2007, the centre acquired the Metro Retail Park, which added 220,000 square foot of retail space just a short walk away from the main centre. During September 2012, the MetrOasis external catering development opened, which includes: Harvester, Toby Carvery, Starbucks and Krispy Kreme.

Regardless of being a massive development, the centre was built with people in mind. This can clearly be seen in the architecture, design and selection of materials, all of which work together to create a relaxing, safe and comfortable environment. The Metrocentre goes one leap further than just allowing natural light to flow through the building though - there are plenty of security and customer service staff on hand and even baby changing stations in the male as well as female toilets. On top of this, during school holidays the centre’s very own characters the ‘Metrognomes’ entertain children (and parents!) with free shows. They are on to a winner - after all, people are more likely to spend longer in the centre and as such, spend more money in their shops, if they feel safe, comfortable and happy in the environment.

This topic in teaching…

The large amount of information available on the Metrocentre’s website, which includes a ‘Student Information Pack’, provides an ideal opportunity for group or individual research project. Students could produce a fact file of information including things such as its history, Enterprise Zones, why it is economically viable and what the success the Metrocentre has provided to the local economy.

References

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b037wkw3

http://enterprisezones.communities.gov.uk/about-enterprise-zones/

http://www.intumetrocentre.co.uk/About-Us/General-Info

http://www.intumetrocentre.co.uk/Customer-Information#a578

http://www.intumetrocentre.co.uk/Upload/PageAttachments/page1981/files/MetroCentre%20Student%20Information%20Pack%20%20-%20February%202013.pdf           

The Rural-Urban Fringe

The Rural-Urban fringe is the land at the edge of an urban area, where the urban environment meets the country.  Within this area there is often a mixture of land uses - industry, motorways, by-passes, recreational land uses and farming all occur in the Rural-Urban fringe.

The land on the Rural-Urban fringe is often cheaper and as such, science parks, business parks and industrial estates locate there to utilise the space for expansion and good transport links. These necessary transport links (motorways and by-passes), have caused upset to environmental groups who feel that the area should be kept as green as possible (for example, the M25 which cuts through London’s greenbelt).

It’s not just motorways in the Rural-Urban fringes that cause upset. Before Heathrow’s Terminal 5 was built it was a great source of controversy. Supporters of the development hailed it as an essential for the modernisation of Heathrow, but environmental groups argued that it would increase the number of flights, noise and pollution. In March 2008, Terminal 5 opened. Heathrow does continue to have controversy surrounding its use of the Rural-Urban fringe of London though. In 2006, when the plans were unveiled for Terminal 5, there were also plans unveiled for a third runway at Heathrow. In 2009, the third runway was given the go ahead by the then Labour government, despite objections from environmental campaigners and the Conservatives. When the new coalition government came into force in May 2010, they scrapped the plans for the new runway. However, this July (2013), new plans have been submitted by Heathrow - three options (North, North-west and South-west of current site) each meant to be quicker and cheaper than previous plans. Only time will tell if Heathrow’s opposition will be able to hold off this development on this Rural-Urban fringe.

Other developments which cause controversy on Rural-Urban fringes are out-of-town shopping centres. They, like many of the other developments, take advantage of the available space, good transport links and cheap land. Many objections to out-of-town shopping centres are because people start shopping at the out-of-town centres, rather than in town, which causes the town centres to decline.

Housing may also encroach into the Rural-Urban fringe. With more and more people commuting to work, small villages expand to handle the rising numbers of people living in the Rural-Urban fringes. As a result, recreational uses of the Rural-Urban fringes, such as golf courses and leisure parks, are also built to cope with demand and to utilise the space.

As well as all the above mentioned uses, farming also occurs within the Rural-Urban fringe. However, with developers wanting more and more land to build on and agriculture being a tough way to earn a living now, farmers often come under pressure to sell their land.

References

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/urban_environments/urban_models_medcs_rev5.shtml

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7296022.stm

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7829676.stm

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/8678282.stm

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-23337754

http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/geography/settlements/revise-it/the-rural-urban-fringe

Farming in Rural Areas

In many areas of the world, farming is a large part of rural life. Farming can be categorized in terms of what is grown or reared, the size of the farm and the agricultural techniques use. The first thing to determine about farms is whether they are sedentary or nomadic. A sedentary farm is situated in the same location all the time, whereas a nomadic farmer will move from one place to another. The second thing to determine is whether the farm is arable, pastoral or mixed. Arable farming is the cultivating of crops, pastoral is the rearing of animals, and mixed is a combination of both. The third thing to look at is whether the farming is intensive or extensive. Intensive farming is high input or yields for the given land area, whereas extensive is low inputs of yields for the area of land. The last couple of definitions are commercial and subsistence. This has been covered previously, but to recap: commercial farms have crops which are cultivated and animals which are reared to be sold; while subsistence farms grow crops or rear animals for consumption by the farmer and his (or her) family.

Factors affecting farm type:

• Capital - money is needed to set up and run a farm. There are government subsidies which farms can get, but there is still a shortage. As such, farms must be efficient and use money wisely to survive. As prices fall for farm produce, the profit margin for the farmers becomes smaller, meaning they can employ less people and buy less seeds and animals for the following year - this is a harsh downward spiral. 
• Choice - clearly the ultimate decision of what the farmer farms is up to them. However, in the past this decision has been determined by the climate, soil and relief, farmers are increasingly choosing the crops or animals which will bring them the most money, rather than the best suited to the land.
• Climate - this is one of the most important physical factors affecting farm type. Farmers must consider the number of hours of sunshine the crops will get, the average temperature and the amount, type frequency and intensity of rainfall. Altitude and wind also play a large part.
• Aspect - linked with the climate and the amount of sunshine the crops will get is the aspect. Farmers need to take into account whether the plot of land is Ubac (shady) or adret (sunny).
• Labour - centuries ago farms would have to be located close to where there were plenty of men to complete the labour intensive jobs around the farm. Now, however, with farming becoming more mechanised there is less need for large numbers of workers, so just a few people are needed to manage the farm.
• Market - like any business, market is very important. There must be the demand for the product and the farmer must be able to make a profit. Subsidies as mentioned in the capital section have helped farmers enormously over the last 20 years.
• Politics - this covers the land tenure / ownership (rent, share-cropping and state control); organisation (collective, cooperative, agribusiness and family farms); government policies (subsidies, guaranteed prices, ESAs, quotas and set aside); as well as war which encompasses disease and famine.
• Relief and slope - the two come hand in hand, slope is the gradient and relief is the altitude. Altitude affects farming types. Flat, low altitude, sheltered areas are best to grow crops and they also allow for easy access with large machinery. Steep slopes, high up in the mountains, are best for sheep, cattle and goats as the animals are hardy and can cope with the harsher environments. There are exceptions, such as the rice terraces on the steep slopes in Indonesia.
• Soils - the soil fertility is important when choosing crops to grow, the pH, cation exchange capacity and nutrient status can all affect the farm type. The structure, texture and depth also have a great impact. Thick, well-irrigated, often alluvial soil is usually the best for crop farming. In hilly areas the soil is thinner and less fertile, which is why this is better for grazing sheep and cattle.
• Pests - farmers must be aware of what the risks are of vermin, locusts and diseases within the area and plan accordingly.

Organic farming:

This type of farming has become increasingly popular in recent decades - its produce is commonly seen on our supermarket shelves. Organic farming does not use chemical fertilisers or feed additives in animal food. Farmers must rely on natural types of farming, such as introducing ladybirds to eat the aphid pests and other natural farming ways such as crop rotation.

The organic farming industry is worth over £1million a year, which is big attraction to many farmers. There are plenty of other positives too, such as: an increase in soil condition due to the manure used; the local environment benefits because natural habitats are not destroyed; the land’s biodiversity increases as there are no chemicals harming the insects and also the food is healthier for people.

There are however some negatives: firstly the crop yield is lower on organic farms (by about 20%); secondly (which is crucial to British organic farmers), most of the organic food sold in UK shops is imported; also, more produce is damaged by pests in organic farming than regular farming and weed control has to be done mechanically which is time consuming; as well as these issues, some organic pesticides such as copper can remain in the soil and be harmful. The final negative point is that because of the diet of cattle, organic dairy farms produce more methane per animal than non-organic farming. Another point to consider is that with the tough economic times, buying organic produce is a luxury many people will choose to cut out of their lives when money is tight.

The topic in teaching…

Farming lends itself to a comparison activity. The factors affecting farm type have been given above. These can be analysed and by applying the knowledge they have gained, the students can look at the distribution of farming in different parts of the UK. This could be done as a matching pairs activity with descriptions of different climates, reliefs and locations compared to markets etc., to be matched with the different types of farming (arable, market gardening, hill sheep farming, dairy farming and mixed farming).

Agriculture is a complex topic which has many different aspects which one could explore. There is the whole world of agricultural ecosystems, the ‘Common Agricultural Policy’, the green revolution, agricultural models (such as Von Thunen’s model, Sinclair’s model and Hagerstrand’s model), as well as the environmental issues and impacts agriculture is creating in the UK. However, for now, as I’m just exploring agriculture as part of rural life, I’m going to stop here before I get carried away.

References

Nagle and Spencer, 1997. Advanced Geography Revision Handbook. Oxford University Press.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/rural_environments/farming_rural_areas_rev1.shtml

http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/geography/agriculture

http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/geography/agriculture

Sustainable Rural Changes

During the changes in rural areas I mentioned I would talk about ‘sustainable rural changes’ in a later post… and here is that post!!! To make changes sustainable means to protect the resources, maintain the economy and not let the standard of life suffer for the present residents or any future residents. As mentioned in the blog post about second homes, it is very difficult to make sure every aspect of rural change is sustainable.

Below are some approaches which help towards achieving more sustainability in MEDCs:

•  Local people can form co-operatives to provide services. A co-operative is a business owned and run by its members; everyone has a say in how the business is run and all share equally in the profits. There are currently over 5400 independent co-operatives within the UK. These aren’t necessarily just the local post office or shop either - Sheffield Renewables, for example, were set up to generate green power and profit from the river running through the city. Another example is Dulas, a fast growing worker owned green technology business in Wales. However, if you want a classic example of a local shop becoming a co-operative, the BBC Bitesize points to Berrynarbor, Ilfracombe. The village has a local community shop almost half the villagers invested in, which even includes the use of a computer and space to stop for a coffee.
• The second approach to achieve sustainability in MEDCs is to get help from the government. The Environmental Stewardship Scheme, run by DEFRA is one example. This provides funding to farmers (and other land managers) to improve the landscape, promote public access and conserve wildlife. There are four stages to this scheme: Entry Level Stewardship, Organic Entry Level Stewardship, Uplands Entry Level Stewardship and Higher Level Stewardship.
• For really deprived areas of the UK, the EU can fund regions through funds such as the European Regional Development Fund. However much money the EU puts in, the British government has to match the amount. In the blog post on second homes I mentioned Cornwall and how it is one of the poorest places in Britain with incomes 25% below average. According to the Guardian, Cornwall is the only corner of the UK to receive this aid from the EU.
•  National Parks in the UK are one of the best places to see sustainability approaches in action. They are also great places to aid students understanding the conflicts between recreation and conservation.  Conflicts can be managed by clear signage for tourists, restrictions on developing land and restrictions on traffic and park and ride schemes in some areas. The Sustainable Development Fund from DEFRA and the Welsh government have encouraged individuals and communities to find sustainable ways of living and working, while also enhancing the natural environment around them. Since the programme began Exmoor Sustainable Development Fund has awarded nearly £1.9million to more than 100 projects, while the Snowdonia National Park Authority gives out £200 000 per annum. 

Sustainable development in LEDCs:

There are four key ways of helping rural areas in LEDCs become more sustainable:

• By improving the rural economy (including generating income within the area). The aim is that this will result in less rural-urban migration and the downward spiral associated with that.
• By increasing rural food production. This needs to be done in a way to protect the environment and land for future generations to continue using, but should improve the standard of life for current residents by providing more food to eat and to sell to the towns.
• By improving the rural standards of living. The beginning point for this is to ensure there is clean drinking water and safe sewerage disposal for everyone and to give the local population access to education and health care. These are basic things which would improve the standard of life for current residents as well as generations to come. Education will also help develop other parts of sustainability in rural areas as the locals learn more about their environments.
• By improving standards of communication to help rural people keep in touch with developments. Better access and links to towns allows exchange of information, goods and products, such as the food mentioned above.

Many charities work within LEDCs to help rural communities become more sustainable. Some work alongside communities, teaching organic farming methods to boost crops and increase yields. Others such as ‘The Water Project’ provide access to safe water via pumps, which in turn improves health, education, hunger and can also break the cycle of poverty. Other charities help to develop self-sufficiency within the community, so that when the organisation goes, the community can continue to thrive. Some charities boost confidence and community spirit, so that communities help themselves to prosper.

References

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/rural_environments/changes_rural_areas_ledcs_rev2.shtml

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/rural_environments/changes_rural_areas_medcs_rev2.shtml

http://www.theecologist.org/campaigning/culture_change/1328920/how_to_start_a_cooperative_in_five_steps.html

http://www.eryri-npa.gov.uk/park-authority/cae-introduction

http://www.exmoor-nationalpark.gov.uk/communities/sustainable-exmoor

http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/nov/18/ruralaffairs.immigrationpolicy

http://www.nationalparks.gov.uk/lookingafter/sustainable-development.htm

http://thewaterproject.org/why-water.php

The Amazon

In the blog post about rural changes I mentioned a lot about changes in LEDCs. One example used frequently in the books and websites is the Amazon Rainforest, so here I am going to explore a little more about the soil degradation and loss of ecosystems caused by these changes to the rural areas.

The Amazonian tropical rainforest is found between 10˚ North and 10˚ south of the equator. Due to the constant high temperatures, humidity and daily rainfalls, this is an optimum place for plant growth, rich plant diversity and lots of endemic, superbly adapted animal species. However, this is all under threat due to forest clearance - 100,000 kilometres of forest are being cut down each year.

Why?

Commercial clearances for timber harvesting have been going on in the Amazon for centuries. This is because there is high demand for the tropical mahogany and teak to make hard wood flooring and furniture. Despite the UK and many other countries restricting imports on these products, the trade still continues with disastrous consequences for the rural Amazon.

What else?

The building of hydroelectric dams; the Grande Carajas development programme; the building of new roads and forest clearance also have an impact on the soil degradation and loss of ecosystems. These are detailed below:

Hydroelectric dams

80% of Brazil’s power comes from hydroelectric dams, but two thirds of the potential is untapped. There are 48 planned dams, 30 of which are in the Amazon basin. The building of hydroelectric dams along the Amazon’s tributaries has been known to flood the Amazon basin resulting in ecosystem damage. For example; Brazil’s Balbina dam near Manaus, flooded 2,400 square km of rainforest.

The Grand Carajas development programme

The Grand Carajas is the largest iron ore mine and aluminium plant in the world. It is right in the heart of where untouched forest once stood and is thought to continue being economically worth-while for 400 years. Not only is the mining bad for the environment, there would have been many ecosystems ruined in the clearing of the land and there was wood used as fuel, which led to further clearances.

The building of new roads

Over the last few decades the number of roads and highways being built through the Amazon has increased. As mentioned above, tropical forests, such as the Amazon, have a complex structure and humid microclimate that sustain a large number of endemic species. Many of these species avoid altered habitats near roads and cannot cross any sort of clearing. Any that do risk crossing the road are at danger of being hit by vehicles or killed by people hunting near roads. These new roads therefore, aid in diminishing or fragmented wildlife populations and can lead to local extinctions. New roads also promote other deforestation.

Forest clearance

95% of forest clearance and fires occur within 50km of roads. Huge areas are cleared for commercial agriculture, for crops such as soya beans. Landless farmers also move to Amazonia along new roads and cut down the forest for firewood, or to grow crops. This issue with this is that the more of the Amazon is cleared forests for farming, the less productive the farming will be due to reduced rainfall and rising temperatures caused by feedbacks on the regional climate.

The topic in teaching…

I have seen lesson plans on the internet for whole lessons on the Grand Carajas development programme alone, so depending on timescales and age range there are a variety of opportunities. A lot of information is covered on the Amazon in the ecosystems topic, so one would need to be careful to not cross over. The topic is really interesting nonetheless and worthy of at least a fact file, hence the blog post.

  

References

Yates et al., 2009. Edexcel GCSE Geography B Evolving Planet text book.

http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21577073-having-spent-heavily-make-worlds-third-biggest-hydroelectric-project-greener-brazil

http://www.goodplanet.info/eng/Contenu/Points-de-vues/Roads-are-ruining-the-rainforests/(theme)/267

http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=the%20grand%20carajas%20development%20programme&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CC0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fintranet.horbury.wakefield.sch.uk%2Fmedia%2FDepartments%2Fgeography%2FBrazil%2FThe%2520Grand%2520Carajas%2520Scheme.ppt&ei=r84DUtLADuqG0AX_m4CoDA&usg=AFQjCNGU40KrB_BplKFYkhvfFhQBqc_3mg&bvm=bv.50500085,d.d2k

http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/may/10/amazon-clearance-agriculture-economic-own-goal

Second Homes

Second homes were previously mentioned in the changes to MEDC rural areas. This is a topic that is a little bit more complex and interesting than the sentence it was summed up in during the changes blog post, so I have decided to give it a post of its own.

According to the latest statistics, there are more than 250000 second homes in Britain. Second homes are generally defined as a particular form of holiday accommodation in rural areas which are beyond where one would travel for weekend recreation. They do not include mobile homes or caravans. Although the assumption is that the second home is used for a couple of weeks of the year for holidaying, second homes do encompass any home where people have their main residence elsewhere. Second homes can work in reverse to the norm; say if a person owns a house in the Lake District where they live at the weekends, and a flat in London where they live during the working week.

The demand for second homes has increased with the increasing standards of living and leisure time. Second homes are bought for many different reasons, some people buy them to appreciate the rural environment or for recreation, while others buy to invest, or for a retirement home. The growth in second home ownership has been facilitated by the increase in road networks and accessibility and with the internet age, the increased advertising of such homes.

As previously mentioned, second homes are found in rural areas which are beyond where one would travel for weekend recreation… but it is more than this. Second homes are most common in areas where:

•          They are at a considerable distance from large urban centres
•          Where the landscape quality is high
•          Close to water - two thirds of second homes are close to water
•          Where there are recreational opportunities
•          Where land is available
•          Where the climate is attractive

However, as detailed in the rural change blog, there are considerable negative impacts with second home owners. Disadvantages include:

• Local people get pushed out of the housing market. Cornwall, despite being the most popular places for second homes, is one of the poorest places in Britain. Incomes are 25% below average, yet house prices are 17% higher than national average - a clear sign that the locals are being pushed out of the housing market. This is not just a problem in Cornwall - the average urban wages are higher than that of rural wages.
• Locals in Cornwall say the life of the local communities is being dulled by empty houses which are unlit on winter nights - making the village seem a dark, desolate and unsafe place to walk through on an evening. Some residents are going as far as to leave their homes to the local housing association, as they feel that second homes (which are often left vacant) are damaging to local communities.
• Gwynedd, an area in north-west Wales, has the highest rate of people with second homes used for holidays, with 64 second home owners for every 1000 local residents. They have been noticing the societal break down and resentment from locals towards these second home owners. They note that holiday homes are far and away the largest problem in the local area. In Gwynedd, the local shops suffer because people come down the A55, go to the large national supermarket chain on the way and therefore do not buy their shopping from the local shops, which takes away income from the local community.
• The number of second home owners and those elderly people who move to rural areas can cause a strain on the services provided by the local council. This can undermine the education system and even ruin the local bus service that so many rely on.
• Roads can become congested, driving is hazardous (city drivers may not be used to the twists and turns of rural roads) and as such there are an increased number of traffic collisions.
• Agricultural land is invaded and ruined.
• The local environment may deteriorate due to increased visitor pressure.
• New buildings may not fit in with the local surroundings.

It’s not all “doom and gloom” though, there are some advantages to second homes:

• Tourism is an important income to the local economy; second home owners may well use the local café, shops and garages. One second home owner, when interviewed for the Guardian, said that second home owners get a “pretty bad press at times”. He notes that many villages were pretty run down before the second home owners arrived, and the local communities have done well from second home owners and holiday rentals. Many second home owners do get fully involved in local life; they go to the pub with their neighbours and try to mix in with the community.
• Second homes are a rational alternative for the economic development of backward rural areas. Land can be sold off for second homes at a higher price than they would sell it to locals and the rural authorities do gain some council tax from the second homes which can be used for the local community.
• Second home owners are not a burden on local services which are aimed at the permanent local residents. Taxes from the second home owners can even go into supporting the local services.
• Competition between locals and second home owners may not be as great as first thought - both will be going for very different types of properties. Second home owners are more likely to want something that is more of a challenge which they can renovate to their standards and taste.

There are some positive steps being taken to help those in rural areas. From April 2013, councils have been able to charge full council tax to holiday properties, whereas before it was capped to 50%. This should mean that places like Cornwall, who were losing approximately £2million in taxes due to holiday home discount, are better off and therefore able to put money back into helping locals and the local economy.

Ideas for teaching

Whilst searching through news articles on second homes I came across this interactive map on the Guardian: http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/interactive/2012/oct/22/second-homes-england-wales-mapped

I’m not totally sure how to best utilise this resource. My initial thoughts were to use it as a group discussion point or even to aid in a class debate.

This topic on second homes would be ideal for a class debate, with half the students taking the side of the second home owners and the other half taking the side of the local residents. In upper school classes this could possibly be extended to have the role of local or national government also arguing their case.

The activity could also be done as a poster presentation, or with individuals using an A3 sheet, half of the piece of paper used to state the second home owners’ points of view and the other half stating the locals’ points of view.

References

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-23059763

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b02yksnq/live

http://www.theguardian.com/money/2012/oct/22/cornwall-revealed-second-homes-hotspot

http://www.theguardian.com/society/2009/mar/21/second-homes-vandalism

http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/nov/18/ruralaffairs.immigrationpolicy

Nagle, G, 2001. Advanced Geography. Oxford University Press.

Site and Situation of Settlements

Having delved into the world that is my work books from GCSE Geography, I have discovered that the site and situation of settlements was covered in much more detail, with many more possibilities for illustrations, than I have depicted it as in my ‘changes to rural settlements’ blog post. Hence, I will go into it in more detail (with a little help from GCSE year old me!).

As mentioned in the ‘rural characteristics’ blog, a ‘site’ is the land on which a settlement is built, while the ‘situation’ is the position in the landscape in relation to other settlement and landscape features. Within the ‘rural characteristics’ blog, I gave a number of things which relate to the site and situation of settlements. These can be analysed in current settlements, or also by looking at a drawing of Ancient Britain and comparing the situations of various places to choose the best site.

In my GCSE workbook I then went on to look at the sites of different modern day settlements. Firstly the ‘Gap Towns’, these are towns which have been built in between or at the entrance to the lowland gap in the hills. They benefit from being at the focus of travel routes.

Below is a sketch of the Mole Gap. This shows Dorking and Leatherhead at the entrances to the lowland hills. 

The second gap town is Lincoln, which lies in between the lowland gap in the hills. Another famous example is Corfe Castle which lies in the gap between two hills.

Above: Corfe Castle, seen standing proud in the gap between two hills (apologies for my camera work almost cutting off the hill on the left hand side!). Photo taken in 2009 after restoration had been completed on the Castle.

A River settlement is the next type of site to look at. An example can be seen below. A supply of water is possibly the single most important factor to consider when choosing a site. Rivers provide a clean source of drinking water, the opportunity to catch fish and also good transport links. Most of the world’s largest cities are located on rivers, especially at the point where they reach the sea, as in the case of our example below.

The fourth and final site is a Fenline site, which can be seen below. The Fens are nutrient rich and so good for agriculture.

The situation of a settlement is important in determining whether it grows to become a city or stays as a town, village or hamlet. Birmingham is in a good situation as it has good road and rail links and is in the centre of the country, so easily accessible from everywhere. This is also why London grew up to be such a big city: good transport links, water availability and level sites to build on.

References

http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/geography/settlements/revise-it/site-and-situation 

Changes in Rural Environments

Whether they are in MEDCs (more economically developed countries) or LEDCs (lesser economically developed countries), rural populations are subject to constant change. The push-pull factors that are in operation are why there are such great changes in rural environments. Push factors are things which are disadvantageous to rural life, i.e. they push people to move to the city. Pull factors are exciting things or opportunities in the city which pull people into urban areas. It’s not all one way though; there is clear evidence for return migration, with people coming back to attractive rural areas which are in easy commuting distance to the job opportunities in the urban areas. Sustainable rural changes will be discussed in a later blog.

Changes in MEDCs

• Job losses - due to mechanisation of the agricultural industry, there are less people needed to run the country’s farms. The importation of food from elsewhere around the world has also decreased the demand from our rural areas, thus minimising jobs.
• House price increases - Rural areas, such as National Parks, are in high demand as second homes and due to building restrictions the houses are in short supply. Hence, prices increase with demand and second home owners push the local people out of the price bracket.
• New homes - Within the rural areas there is a shortage of suitable homes. Brownfield sites are more expensive to build on than Greenfield sites.
• Competition from abroad - As mentioned previously, the importation of food has a big effect on rural areas in MEDCs. It is now more common to see fruit and veg that come from somewhere like Morocco or Spain in our supermarkets than from the UK. The example BBC Bitesize gives is lamb, which can be imported from New Zealand, at competitive prices to UK Lamb. This lack of income from farming means that farmers are forced to turning to tourism to bring in income. This can be in the form of accommodation or “pick your own” farming. This is very seasonal income.
• Rural depopulation - In the remotest of rural areas there is a declining population, which means lack of services, jobs and social life for young people. This becomes a major push factor for young people moving to the urban areas.
• Decline in services - as mentioned above, depopulation in rural areas leads to a decline in services. The local stores and post offices become less profitable and bus services may be cut which leads to the elderly being cut off, relying on the depleting local stores.

Cycle of decline in MEDC rural areas can be seen as follows:

Changes in LEDCs

In LEDCs the majority of the population live in rural areas. The land in rural LEDCs is used for agriculture to feed those in the rural areas and in the towns.

Rural push factors, such as low wages, and urban pull factors, such as better jobs, cause rural to urban migration. This is most common among young men. This is positive in that there is money sent home, which is used to pay for school fees and to buy more livestock, but it has a negative impact on those left behind. Young females have to struggle with the heavy lifting that the young men used to do and the children may be forced to work instead of go to school.

The changes:

• Subsistence farming to cash crops - this is one of the most drastic changes to rural areas in LEDCs. Land which was previously being used for farming just to produce food for the locals, is then turned into cash crops (crops for commercial profit). This is good as it provides more jobs for locals and is a greater source of income. The negatives of this are that there is less food to feed the locals; ecosystems may be damaged should techniques such as slash and burn be implemented; the rates of soil erosion increase; fertilizer may contaminate the local water supply and the water supply may be used up on the cash crops, leaving little for the locals.
• Population increase - the rate of natural increase is high on many rural areas. This puts pressure on food supply, pushing people into the urban areas. If they stay in the local areas the lack of food will lead to malnutrition and starvation.
• Hazards and diseases - AIDS and other epidemics lower the death rate. This means that there are fewer adults to work on the farms and so the pressure is put on young people to provide.
• Environmental degradation - The more the land is used the more the land becomes ruined and bad for growing crops. This is done by the processes of desertification and degradation.
• Globalisation of tourism - Some rural areas attract tourists, one such area is the Maasai Mara in Kenya. This sort of tourism is good in that it brings money to the area and improves the local infrastructures. The issues arise when the money does not actually go back into the local economy.

The LEDC circle of decline:

Glossary

Brownfield sites - unused or derelict land which has been built on before.

Greenfield sites - land which has never been built on before.

References

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/

Nagle, G, 2001. Advanced Geography. Oxford University Press.